Methodology and Archaeometry

Archaeology underwent a transformation from almost purely academic discipline to a research/expert service with a statutory role in spatial planning and development (more than 90% of all research). With the increase in a number of projects of several orders of magnitude, archaeology was transformed into a data-driven discipline. The change also increased ‘openness’ of archaeology to a series of influential external factors determining tasks, funding, the extent of projects etc., which frequently act in the opposite way, in diminishing the role and powers of protection. This situation, coupled with moving a series of research services on the market, boosted the development of archaeological research but also created a series of new challenges. Different professional environments and conditions tend to create a divide between the academic (AA) and ‘applied’ research (PA) which may put the disciplinary unity in risk. The differences between AA and PA are definitely visible, and some of them may have epistemological consequences, but what unites both poles is methodology. However, it is what methods are used and to what ‘depth’, which is the topic of the discussion. The fact is that specific social, legal and economic conditions of PA research have substantial effects on the ways how research in day-to-day practice is performed.

In this sense, AA and PA differ in reasons for research, while AA is autonomous in selecting research topics, PA is much more limited. PA acts in a much less controlled environment and conditions. AA attempt to solve specific research problems, PA’s primary goal is securing the heritage (objects and information). In PA the development of new methods is predominantly oriented towards increasing the efficiency of the working process, while new methods in AA are developed alongside and dialectically with new research problems. And, last but not least, the decisions in PA bear much greater responsibilities in every-day social contexts, whereas the responsibilities of AA lie primarily within the disciplinary and academic contexts. All these issues must be considered when reflecting the methodology in archaeological practice today.

Searching for archaeological remains on the surface is one of the oldest field methods of data gathering in our discipline. It is traditionally referred to as archaeological topography and is predominantly site oriented using structural and architectural parts to define the functions related to site classification.

In the last five decades the focus in archaeological work has shifted towards a capture off landscape as a single complex entity. An array of different prospecting techniques, both remote sensed and terrestrial supported by new detection and recording technologies, have multiplied the stratified and non-stratified archaeological record beyond the proverbial “delimited site”. Two of this methods: a) a structural survey and b) an architectural analysis of standing buildings are still not used as extensively as i.e. systematic field walking resulting in surface finds scatters. Apart from being precisely located, the larger or more complex structures within a surveyed area are simply described.

The paper is an attempt to look at this particular segment of the archaeological record. We will try present the elements of detailed study of standing structures in different stages of preservation (from standing monuments, to ruins or subtle relief forms) that can be observed on the surface and in shallow waters. The chosen case studies reflect the perspectives and limitations of reading single structures and/or their spatial context during the non-invasive work on the surface and in post-field work analysis. The adopted principles of single unit correlation is the basis to decipher and explain the sequence of building, remodelling, destructing or deserting activities. Another important weakness in archaeological studies of architecture can be emphasised in this connection: our reluctance to engage in more detail in features called ruins. They hide an immense quantity of diagnostic material essential to understand the typology and technology of single constructions. A technique similar to stratigraphic principles is the basis to also study the spatial relations within built in areas and give better insight in the use of space.

The results of this type of work can be used as separate studies but compared and integrated with other prospecting data they can give a more enhanced view on the building history in specific conditions related to characteristics of particular area, or period.

Thanks to recent technological developments, the methodology of archaeological excavations has undergone significant advances, enabling an uniform system of documentation based on geographic information system (GIS). During the last three years a database for the archaeological site of Caričin Grad (Justiniana Prima) was developed, based on free GIS-software solution packages, providing the possibility to create a virtual space and to reduce it in a two-dimensional or three-dimensional data models.

The GIS platform of Caričin Grad includes a broad range of geodata, such as SRTM, LiDAR scans, geophysics and photogrammetric records, as well as those related to the characteristics of the physical environment as maps (topographical, geological, pedological and geomorphological), aerial photographs and orthophotos. The database comprises numerous plans from old excavations in addition to new ones. Parallel with the development of the GIS for Caričin Grad a platform for the whole region of the Leskovac basin was created that includes data concerning the prehistoric, roman and medieval remains.

The applied methodological approach based on a GIS proved to be a valuable step and crucial point in archaeological research, enabling an improved understanding of the site and the environment. The GIS facilitates the analyses, interpretation, visualization and the publishing of geospatial information. The database also gives us instructive starting points and possible approaches for future researches, considering surveying, prospection and excavations themselves.

The paper refers to the problems of identifying the elements and relationships that form a relict cultural landscape which evolves around a system of interrelated archaeological sites. Such an example is the Lower Danube Limes in Bulgaria. It is an important part of the Frontiers of the Roman Empire both in the historical sense and as a potential extension of the multinational serial World Heritage Site of the same name.

The Danube Limes is a system that consists of three main material elements: defensive structures, infrastructure and landscape. What binds together these elements and turn them into an integral cultural landscape are the relationship between them: functional, situational, visual, infrastructural and chronological. Principal challenge when studying such kind of cultural landscapes is their identification within the contemporary landscape as many of the related material elements are invisible or destroyed, the original character of the surroundings is altered and, as a result, many of the original relationships are hard to detect.

To face this challenge, a methodology for analysis of the territory was developed, designed to guide the process of identification of the cultural landscape Lower Danube Limes in Bulgaria in view of its protection as cultural heritage site. Each fortified location is evaluated according to a set of criteria regarding the present state of the site itself and its surrounding landscape in comparison with their hypothetical past state, in view of their authenticity and integrity. The methodology facilitates the detection of: preserved valuable elements belonging to both archaeological sites and landscape; relationships that the site has with other locations, or with the landscape; risk factors affecting the property.

The result of the analysis may serve as a basis for the designation of protected areas and buffer zones and design of other measures for the protection of the cultural landscape.

Apart from a few excavation reports published after some of the urban excavations of Trogir, archaeological data about the Trogir area and its hinterland are still very scarce. St. Elijah's hill in Seget Gornji above Trogir (ancient Tragourion/Tragurium) is one of the most important sites for understanding the Late Prehistory and Protohistory of Trogir area as well as the history of quarrying in Dalmatia. The complex site with the continuity of anthropogenic activities, possibly from the Upper Paleolithic/Mesolithic to Modern Period is characterised by two distinctive features: located on the top of the hill are the remains of the Iron Age hillfort and the medieval Church of St. Elijah, while the south and east slopes of the hill are occupied by the remains of quarries dated from the Roman to Contemporary Period. The stone mining continues to this day, with three active quarries on the east and northeast slope of the hill. The shift from architectural-building to technical-building stone exploitation over the last 20 years resulted in the vast devastation of the landscape, as well as the destruction of the archaeological features.

The project of monitoring and documenting the site started in 2013. with field survey and recording of anthropogenic features and surface finds, and continued in 2015. with geodetic survey and high resolution 3D photogrammetry of the entire hill. The objective of the survey was to document the present state of the site and to create a base documentation for tracing the changes in anthropogenic activities and monitoring of the site, by comparison with available spatial data (aerial photographs, cadastral maps), as well as the base for spatial and archaeological structures analysis in order to plan further research and excavations of the site.

The capabilities and limitations of archaeological surface survey are often not well understood, especially its capabilities as a discovery method. This problem comes to the forefront especially when surface survey is used as a tool for evaluating the presence of archaeological resources before large-scale development projects. The standard procedures of surface survey do not enable critical evaluation of precision, reliability and accuracy of survey results or simply addressing a key question of »How much did we miss? «. In survey design and evaluation of survey results it is crucial to take into account the visibility of archaeological record on the surface, which must be considered on multiple levels: (1) visibility determined by geomorphological and other post-depositional processes, (2) visibility determined by the nature of archaeological record, (3) visibility determined by techniques and strategies of the survey method, (4) visibility determined by surface and other environmental conditions during survey, and (5) visibility determined by fieldworkers themselves. Without considering all of these the survey results cannot be critically evaluated. But such an evaluation is not possible using only standard survey procedures which is why geomorphological mapping, seeding experiments and property-based investigation methods should be incorporated into survey design. It must be realised that surface survey is not a discovery method which would show the presence or absence of archaeological record in the landscape, but primarily its exposure to a variety of cultural and natural processes which disturb it, for only in a disturbed and exposed state is the archaeological record visible on the surface. It is also necessary to distinguish between the totality of archaeological record, i.e. empirical reality of archaeological remains, and archaeological record realised through archaeological observations, i.e. the results of archaeological field work, which are influenced by many different factors, archaeological record itself being only one of them.

Research in Albanian prehistory experiences interesting dynamics intermingled through intensive systematic archaeological excavations and narratives over the past. The significant attention towards the systematic excavations comprises the most notable development in the field. On the other hand, publications, comprehensive analysis and interpretations do not justify the eagerness of this immensity of explorations.

This paper analysis the relationship between the explored space on late prehistoric sites in Albania and the nature of discussions and interpretations addressed through these explorations. Particular attention is given to analysis of sample strategy and non-destructive methods applied during the process of the data collection and to what extent this methodology of research conditions the current research and the applications of recent scientific methodologies. What does this experience teaches us about future research and to what extent non-destructive methods and sampling strategy are to be taken more carefully into consideration?

As part of the Archaeological Heritage of Baranja project, a trial excavation started in Batina in 2010. A prehistoric and Roman period site in Batina was situated at the elevated position on the extreme north-eastern part of Bansko brdo, rising above the Danube, with outstanding visual communication westward toward Transdanubia up to Pécs, eastward up to the Bačka and southward to the Eastern Slavonia. In a period from 2010 to 2017, 121 graves from Late Bronze and Early Iron Age were found, as well as from the Roman period. Two burial mounds have been excavated with wooden burial chambers which contain finds from the late 8th–early 7th century BC. In 2016, the Berlin-based company Eastern Atlas realised a magnetic prospection in the archaeological site of Batina. The objective of the investigation was to identify prehistoric and Roman settlement remains as well as further burials of the already known prehistoric and Roman cemetery at the Batina - Sredno site.

In this paper we will compare the results of the magnetic prospection with the results of archaeological excavation conducted in the autumn of 2017 and try to answer the question of whether it is possible to interpret the results of magnetic prospection without archaeological excavation.

Unmanned aerial vehicles, commonly known as drones, are becoming more and more popular as a useful instrument for gathering data on archaeological sites. Through the use of photogrammetry, using a drone on a daily basis during the excavation process has turned out as a good practice for speeding up the process of data collecting. Instead of the time consuming total station surveying or taking a great number of photographs from the ground, we now have the opportunity for rapid gathering of spatial data using low-altitude shots while the total station is only used for georeferencing the 3D model.

In 2013 archaeologist from the International Centre for Underwater Archaeology in Zadar (ICUA) found a 16th century shipwreck in the waters of Veruda island near Pula. At a depth of only 6 meters, a cluster of ballast stones appeared with small metal finds and parts of the wooden ship construction beneath them. In 2016 first archaeological excavation was conducted by ICUA in cooperation with Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI-RGK), University in Dresden (HTW) and company UWA-Logistik.

During that occasion, new system of digital documentation of finds and wooden construction was developed and used. While complete wooden construction was uncovered, a very precise 3D model and drawing was produced using the aluminum structure, so-called “bridge”. In 2017 a second and the final excavation was conducted. All collected finds have been preliminary processed, but for some special finds, an XRF analysis and the X-RAY was made. Additional treatment was applied on concretions - iron nails which make 40.9 % of all finds. Interesting results in interpretation of Veruda shipwreck have been achieved using diverse methodology and archaeometry.

Since 2011, Archaeological department of Vinkovci Municipal Museum has been using metal detector as a standard piece of equipment on both rescue and systematical excavations. Usage of the metal detector resulted in a significant increase of metal finds compared to ‘’classical methodology’’, particularly coins. With the methodology we have established and that will be explained it is possible to connect objects found on soil heaps to the corresponding stratigraphic unit.

The presentation will analyse and compare data about metal finds found with metal detector and with ‘’classical’’ archaeological methods, as well as advantages and disadvantages of using metal detectors in archaeological excavations. Analysis of the finds lists from various excavations led by different institutions has also revealed large differences in the way the forms are filled and what is considered ‘’special find’’ (PN).

Pinga 2 is located on the north-eastern border of the zone of copper mineralization and prehistoric mining works as well at the Prljuša site at Mali Šturc, the lowest peak of Rudnik mountain in central Serbia. In its immediate neighborhood, there is a mine shaft which has been excavated since 2014 and dated, according to pottery finds in the Early Eneolithic Bubanj-Hum I culture. The exploration of Pinga 2 was undertaken to determine whether it is the trace of prehistoric or later mining from the Roman or Medieval Age.

Pinga 2 is a funnel-shaped surface depression, 18 meters long and 14 meters wide. The research was started with a small trench (3x2m) in the central part of the pinga. Only one layer of humus mixed with large stones was detected in the trench. The excavation was suspended at a depth of 1.8 m and followed by geophysical measuring. Geoelectric scanning in the central part of Pinga 2 revealed a thick layer, almost 10m deep, composed of large stone material. This layer leans on a border rock almost vertically descending to the bottom. Another archaeological excavation was undertaken on the eastern border of the Pinga 2. The excavation revealed the steep rock representing the edge of the pinga. Along the top of this rock a narrow eleven meters long track carved in the rock was discovered, connecting two entrances into mining shafts. The waste stone material from these shafts was thrown into the central part of the pinga infilling it and probably covering earlier mining works.

During excavations archaeological material was not found , but the appearance of mining works and the absence of malachite in surrounding rock indicate that the works certainly do not originate from the time of the Early Eneolithic as the neighbouring mine at Mala Šturca.

The Rudnik mountain in central Serbia is famous for its ore richness, in particular of malachite (carbonate copper ore), whose deposits were recognized and exploited from prehistory up to modern times. Archaeological remains show clear traces of mining activities during the Roman and especially medieval period, when there was an important mining centre on the mountain. Recent excavations at the site of Prljuša – Mali Šturac uncovered rich material remains showing exploitation of malachite during the Eneolithic period. Over 15 objects were discovered (mining shafts) which constitute the structure of this site. Beside other archaeological finds, the quantity of mining hammerstones is very impressive. It is estimated that over 2000 tools are scattered on the site, clearly demonstrating the intensity of mining activities on this location during the Eneolithic times and conspicuous mining potential the mountain possesses.

During the archaeological research, 688 hammerstones were discovered and analysed (478 of them are from recent excavation campaigns). Based on their analysis, hypotheses were made regarding their manufacture and use. In summer 2017, experimental (re)construction was undertaken on three basic types of these tools, as a complementary segment to functional and typological analyses. The goal of the experimental research was to gather as much data as possible which would serve as a comparative filter for testing previously raised hypotheses and research questions related to the manufacture and usage modes of this category of mining tools. Obtained results enabled a more complete understanding of the prehistoric mining technology on this site, as well as reconstruction of the chaine opératoire from the raw material procurement and production, to the use, damage and discard of hammerstones.

In this research paper we will present the results of the archeometrical analysis of pottery dated to Middle and Late Neolithic period from the archaeological site of Los Castillejos (Montefrio, Granada).

Through stereomicroscopy and XRD we have been able to sort the pottery in to separate chrono-cultural periods, which are divided by a hiatus of around 600 years. On the one hand, this hiatus shows the end of Middle Neolithic and on another hand the beginning of the Late Neolithic, the deep technological and typological changes in pottery production are also evident. We interpret these cultural changes as a consequence of demographic transfer from others areas of Andalucia. This evidence is show with the appearance of the “cazuelas carenadas”, with the increase of the pottery volume and the changes in ceramics decoration. In addition of these changes, there is an increase in agricultural activities and changes in the preference of the domestic animals. This event will be the basis of the development of a Copper Age society from the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula, which will eventually result in a stratified society managed by the elites.

The proposed poster presents the preliminary results of archaeometric analyses carried out in the framework of the Cultural Encounters across the Adriatic and Ionian seas. 2500-2000 BC and the CeVaS-Cetina Valley Survey projects. These represent the first petrographic analyses undertaken on Early Bronze Age Cetina–type pottery from Dalmatia. Analysed shards come from two clusters of tumuli: Poliakuše, Šibenik, and Vučevica, Split (Šuta 2013). 8 samples from Poliakuše (6 from Tumulus 1, 2 from Tumulus 2) and 8 samples from Vučevica (1 from Tumulus 1 and 7 from Tumulus 4) have been analysed at the Competence Center Archaeometry - Baden-Württemberg (CCA-BW), University of Tübingen. These preliminary results show that the two analysed sample sets have common technological traits but also differences, possibly linked to the variability in the available raw materials sources and specific technological choices.

The systematic excavations of the Greek Archaeological Service at the south sector of the ancient Agora of Kos (Greece) brought to light the material remains of late Hellenistic–early Roman pigment production site. The revealed archaeological context includes a plethora of pigments, raw materials and tools, as well as the ruins of fire structures. The finds indicate the production of Egyptian blue as one of the workshop’s core activities, while earth pigment lumps—in different stages of production—were also found, illustrating a treatment process carried out on the site. The understanding of the workshop’s complexity requires a thorough and interdisciplinary perspective, including the examination of archaeological data, scrutinizing ancient treatises related to pigments, and understanding the broader archaeological and historical context of the flourishing late Hellenistic and early Roman Kos.

The archaeometric examination of the material culture of the site aims to shed light on the ancient manufacturing technology of pigment production—with a special focus on the artificially produced Egyptian blue—the provenance of the raw materials and the applications of the final products. Non-destructive analytical techniques (including XRF, FTIR, Raman, and XRD) will be performed on both the raw materials and the pigments revealed on the site. Additionally, in situ analysis on pigments preserved on coeval Koan wall paintings will give a rather comprehensive picture of the workshop’s applications and activities in time and space. The proposed poster presentation aims to schematically lay out the methodology carried out for this project, the occurring challenges and dilemmas—depending on the research questions—and to illustrate some preliminary results on the characterization of pigments.

During Roman late republic and early empire period, specialised pottery production districts were established in different parts of the Roman world. In this context, the concept of serial production rises, oriented to high standardization and optimization of the whole process in order to deliver more items. One of the most representative productions in this time is terra sigillata.

Poster shows how the combined use of ancient sources, typological studies, quantifications, archaeometric (e.g. provenance and technology studies, by means of thin-section petrography and Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy) and environmental analyses (e.g. the study of faunal and botanical remains) can provide a holistic perspective on the production, shifting the focus from the object itself to the context in which it was produced. The presented case study is the manufacture located in Pisa (Tuscany, Italy), a site strongly oriented to mass production. Particular attention will be given to the assessment of the environmental impact of this site, highlighting the technological aspects and the consumption of this district in terms of: - Geologic resources (extraction of clay and minerals); - Fuel, in this case wood, and its impact on the environment through deforestation (and eventually reforestation); - Water management.

The digitalization of archaeological artefacts is an important part of cultural heritage preservation, once digitalized the resulting 3D models can serve a documentational purpose as well as a presentational one. Presentation of archaeological artefacts in their digital form has especially increased in the recent years with the rise of social networks and mobile internet. Many renowned cultural institutions use 3D models of archaeological artefacts for the promotion of exhibitions and to entice the potential audiences to visit the actual museums.

The goal of this presentation is to showcase the workflow used in image based modeling when dealing with close-up objects. The objects in question consist mostly of iron-age pottery in various sizes with detailed decorations, kept in the Archaeological museum in Zagreb. The digitalization process itself is a part of the INTERREG project “Monumentalized Early Iron Age Landscapes in the Danube river basin”. 3D models of these artefacts are reproduced in the .obj format which allows us to store and archive the models in their digital version, and to export them to various visualization software. For our purposes we used the open-source „Blender“ game engine for the visualization of 3D models in the form of short movie clips and still images.

In early spring 2017 we have obtained airborne LiDAR data of the territory of Vrsar from commissioned flights, which revealed the existence of numerous archaeological features previously hidden from aerial reconnaissance and ground survey by thick Mediterranean forests, woodland and scrub. Preliminary analysis combining LiDAR data with historical aerial photographs and targeted survey data shows the extent of previously unknown traces of the Roman centuriation grid. The presence of the Roman centuriation was known in the area, but the thickly wooded areas limited the results of both conventional aerial photography and fieldwalking. With LiDAR these features are clearly recognizable; they are particularly evident in the eastern part of the Municipality of Vrsar where the centuriation lines ran across karstic valleys Together with mounds (stone heaps) that may also belong to the Roman period they are the result of cleaning the arable land of stones, which abound in the Istrian karst landscape.

The Podglogovik abandoned shepherds settlement on the Biokovo mountain consist of ruined drywall houses inhabited on the seasonal basis, during summer pastures. The dwellings were built mostly during 19th and at the beginning of 20th century and they commonly housed both humans and animals. The village was being abandoned gradually, throughout the 20th century, when the inhabitants ceased to practice transhumant livestock raising.

The main goal of our research is to shed light on the connection between vernacular beliefs and spatial practices. Various research methods from different disciplines were deployed, including ethnology, archaeology and history. Such interdisciplinary research utilises different but nevertheless related labels such as archaeology of folk religion, archaeology of folklore, archaeology of ritual and magic.

The first order of business in our project was to conduct a field survey in the village area. The aim was to locate the positions of carved graffiti. Each item was then mapped in order to analyse their spatial distribution. Finally, the graffiti were documented and photographed and their measurements taken. Oral histories were documented using several informants. The information provided was utilized in the interpretation of gathered data. Comparative examples of cross carving, along with other practices known from published historical and ethnographic record, were used to supplement our research.