Methodology and Archaeometry

This presentation discusses archaeometric approaches which focus on food remains that have survived absorbed or adsorbed on the vessels' walls. These include chemical analysis of lipids and proteins and the analysis of plant microremains such as starch and phytolits. I will touch upon the potentials and limits of each method and the benefits of combining them in the study of past foodways. Examples of the applications of these methods on pottery will be presented in order to illustrate the potentials of such approaches in investigations of dietary preferences and food habits.

When planning the in situ preservation of archaeological remains, one of the issues that need consideration are changes in the physical environment and their impact on the remains. This includes mechanical loading of the surface above the site and its consequences on the various layers and artefacts within site. This contribution represents a laboratory-based experiment on the effects of heavy equipment compaction on archaeological remains. A set of the test was performed in order to understand better the changes that mechanical loading of the surface will cause to the archaeological site. In a custom-made steel case, artificial archaeological sites were created by layers of sandy silt and gravel, in which a variety of archaeological and modern artefacts were placed. In order to measure stress and strain, some of the artefacts were equipped with strain gauges. A servo-hydraulic piston was used to simulate static and dynamic mechanical loading. Moisture and temperature were recorded before, during and after each test, while the three-dimensional recording of the artefacts and layers, and soils stiffness measurements were performed before and after each loading. The obtained data allowed us to study the compression of layers and their moisture, movements of the artefacts, stresses and strains on the artefacts, and the macroscopically observable damage of the artefacts caused by loading. We were able to deduce how big of an influence grain size and moisture of the soil have, how important the type of material representing archaeological remains and their position within the soil is, that movements of the artefacts within the layers are also an important factor to consider, that vibrations are far more damaging than force alone, and that protective layer is not always best preservation strategy. With the presented results, our research has been a step towards a better understanding of the effects of heavy equipment compaction to archaeological remains and thus to the preservation of archaeological sites in situ.

Paper tackles spatio-temporal patterns of Neolithic and Copper Age settlement dynamics in the Western Carpathian Basin and Eastern Alps using spatial explicit use of radiocarbon dates. It focuses on the spatial process of spread, movement, aggregation and segregation in the time frame between 8500 and 5000 cal BP. A database of 136 sites with 812 radiocarbon dates from the Neolithic and Copper Age was compiled. Data were aggregated over spatial grids, and different spatio-temporal variables were estimated over the study area. This data was used to compute the first appearance of Neolithic settlement systems, direction and speed of the spread of the Neolithic. Then, spatially explicit demographic estimations were computed for the study area, displaying interesting spatiotemporal dynamics and different regional trajectories. Distribution of Neolithic and Copper Age sites in the study area is clustered and patchy. The first Neolithic thus appears as isolated islands or enclaves of the Neolithic settlements which then slowly expand to fill neighbouring regions. There are also some backwater areas with much later Neolithic settlement. We identified the existence of stationary borders where the Neolithic expansion toward west halted for almost 500 years. After 6300 cal BP study area experience a significant reduction in the extent of settlement systems, associated with the Late Neolithic to Copper Age transition. This significant decrease in the extent of settlements system, but not all areas were affected to the same extent.

Archaeological field survey is widely used across the world as a reliable survey method in scientific and development-led researches to locate and identify archaeological surface scatter. Methodological developments aimed to understand the capabilities and limitations of field survey in many aspects. Geomorphological and pedological processes, artefact visibility, survey strategy, surface conditions and human factor are just a few examples in this regard. Nonetheless, regional surveys or bigger infrastructural projects almost always must face with non-surveyable areas due to temporal or permanent coverage. The five CORINE (Coordination of Information on the Environment) databases are providing a reliable starting point to track land cover changes between 1990 and 2018. This presentation aims to analyse the effect of land cover changes and trends in the aforementioned period in Hungary and their effect on fieldwork. During the automatic workflow in ArcGIS, firstly, the CORINE databases were reclassified into archaeologically relevant survey categories. Secondly, the five databases were overlapped based on the geometric union. Lastly, statistics were calculated in 197 districts about the size and changes of the archaeological land cover categories. Firstly, the analysis resulted in a theoretical map of researchable areas for field survey. Secondly, the spatial and statistical analysis of long-term changes showed, that 2540 km2 arable land were transformed into forests and grasslands mostly after Hungarian accession to the European Union. According to the principles of European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy and the aims of the Hungarian Government, we can expect a further decrease of the field surveys primary areas, arable lands. Lastly, a detailed analysis was carried out in a 350 km2 area around Polgár (NE Hungary) to analyse regional-scale effects of land cover on site identification. Geographical variables were selected (curvature, wetness, aspect, pedology, geomorphology, topographical index) to measure the land cover caused site identification bias in researchable and non-researchable areas.

Between 2014 and 2019 several geophysical prospection campaigns on archaeological sites in Northern and Eastern Croatia were realised. Survey layout, data and interpretation from the Hallstatt site of Bistričak (Varaždin), from the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age site of Dolina (Nova Gradiška), and several prehistoric and Roman sites in Slavonia are presented and discussed. All data sets can be considered as incomplete since the investigations faced a number of serious constraints. Firstly, those undertakings are often characterised by relatively low budgets. Secondly, intensive agricultural use, small property sizes result in limited accessibility of the areas to be investigated. On no account a complete coverage of the site's cores was possible. Moreover, the limited budgets also implicate a methodological narrowness. Do these resulting incomplete data sets contribute to increase our archaeological knowledge? From a purely scientific point of view, a total coverage not only of the “site”, but also of the surrounding “landscape” is self-evident. But in the reality of archaeological fieldwork and research in today's “austerity societies,” this remains mere wishful thinking. Yet, couldn't we consider this kind of low-budget prospection campaigns as a full-value tool in archaeological research? Due to the wide availability of multi-channel equipment, data collection has become a standard procedure during the last 15 years. By contrast, the archaeological interpretation of the data is a matter of permanent epistemological development. The combination of the mentioned incomplete data sets and poor documentation of archaeological information on historical excavations and surveys present a challenge for both archaeologists and geophysicists. The presented examples prove that substantial archaeological information can be gathered even from limited data sets. Taking into account geological, geomorphological and archaeological information, prevents us from both, merely describing geophysical data as well as from over-interpreting. It is self-evident that all information is assembled and presented in GIS so that continuous reworking of the data is possible for all involved parties. The geophysical prospection campaigns were initiated, funded and strongly supported by the Institute of Archaeology Zagreb, the OREA – Institut für Orientalische und Europäische Archäologie, Vienna, the University of Zagreb, and the Vinkovci Municipal Museum

Discovering the new potential archaeological deposit is a very demanding and challenging task for an archaeologist, where one should take into account many historical facts and investigate their interaction and impact on ancient life. The most significant impact on the life of the population has the surrounding. Beside rational conclusions, there is a lot of space for intuitive ones ("sixth sense"). To help the archaeologist to organize their knowledge and criteria to make the right decision, a multicriteria analysis in GIS supported by the Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) can apply and contribute to more realistic and rational decisions. This paper aims to show how to evaluate the space according to the predefined criteria. The result of the evaluation shows the archaeological potential of every pixel on the map representing the evaluated area. The locations with high archaeological potential draw our attention to places where is to expect an archaeological deposit. As a study area, the Požega valley was chosen. It represents a large number of localities dating from the Iron Age. Five criteria were selected and ranked according to personal preference: proximity to water, altitude, terrain slope, proximity to mineral resources, and land use. Five potential sites for archaeological research were identified using multicriteria analysis in GIS and AHP. Finally, the possibilities of multicriteria analysis in GIS in archaeological research are presented and discussed.

During April and May of 2019, archaeological firm Kaducej d.o.o. conducted a rescue excavation at Donja Cerovačka cave, near Gračac. The archaeological excavation covered an area of 210 square meters along the route of the future pathway. Despite the assumption that the archaeological features in the cave were mostly destroyed by recent interventions and past archaeological and geological excavations, many intact archaeological features were discovered throughout the entire excavated area. At least two occupation phases dated to the Late Bronze Age were recognized, although the depth of archaeological layers generally does not exceed 15 centimetres. The authors will present the excavation methods and documentation techniques as well as the results of the preliminary analysis of archaeological stratification in Donja Cerovačka cave, with emphasis on the difficulties that accompany large-scale archaeological excavations in caves.

Systematic archaeological excavations at the site Velić near Trilj began in 2013. At this point, the remains of the rectangular ground plan building were documented. Its central structure has a semicircular apse. The whole object can be roughly dated to the period of late antiquity and interpreted as an early Christian memoria which consists of three rooms and an east-west oriented vaulted tomb. The tomb was found open. Nevertheless, the remains of an older adult male were found inside. The excavation was characterized by the extreme poverty of small finds, which means that the precise dating of the site is not possible so far. In the last days of the 2019 excavation campaign another tomb situated beneath the central structure with an apse was documented. This time it was closed and intact. Anyone who ever worked in archaeology knows how rare these types of situations are and that in practice we usually deal with remains of structures, while in this case, the entire tomb seemed undisturbed since the antiquity. After the stone slab was carefully removed, a tomb with a vaulted ceiling and two benches was revealed. The skeletal remains of four individuals were identified: a younger male adult and three children. Although the tomb and its state of preservation were astonishing, the excavation was faced with a daunting task of documenting the buried structure and its content. Since image-based modeling has been used as a practical and detailed documentational tool in the research so far, it was only natural to approach this part of our excavations in the same manner. This paper will present the difficulties and the solutions that came across during the documentational process in this tomb, as well as some of the conclusions and interpretations of the tomb and the larger complex around it.

Istria is rich in a more or less high-quality limestone which was used during antiquity for various purposes. Several quarries on the coast, as well as in the hinterland are thought to be of Roman age, or at least in use since the Roman age. There are more than 300 sites of Roman villae rusticae across the peninsula, so stone material was certainly needed very much. Limestone of high quality could have been distributed to far away locations using the sea as a means of transport, whereas if needed close-by, the roads could have served for this purpose. Travelling by sea was also less expensive and therefore more frequently used than travelling by land. The Istrian peninsula is rich in little bays and coves which could have provided sailors with a safe haven, and some of these bays show remains of Roman port facilities today. Regarding Roman roads in Istria, we do not know their exact routes, but several authors have suggested their main directions and stations. The first step in researching Roman usage of limestone in Istria is localizing all the supposed Roman age quarries, which we will present here, as well as suggested Roman roads and ports, all of which could have been used for further transportation of stone blocks exploited from quarries. The spatial relationship between Roman quarries, roads and ports, crucial to understanding the distribution of stone blocks, will be presented.

The coast and islands are in their form a very specific environment. Though they closely connect to the hinterland, their formation and use, differ from the usual patterns we know and explore in archaeological mainland studies. This presentation is an attempt to look at the development of the coastal landscape through time regarding specific characteristics that influence our possibilities to detect, relate and explain archaeological remains to it. In general, the coastlines are continually shifting and changing due to the activity of the sea like waves, tide, currents, transgression and abrasion, silting etc. Together with climate conditions, they enable or restrict exploiting these areas for different purposes from prehistoric periods until today. The Eastern Adriatic coast (Dalmatian type) has two major properties. It runs parallel to the geological formations of the mainland with elongated islands divided from it by narrow sea channels, numerous deep protected bays and clear passages (gates) between groups of the islands. The sinking coast is by far the most significant feature of it. There are numerous historical and modern sources describing and explaining everything from building ships to sea travel and trade, to military strategies and sea battels for the Mediterranean specially its Eastern part. The archaeological studies are no different in this sense. Remains of everyday life in a coast area beyond the notorious ports referred to in famous battels or luxurious villas and palaces are often unknown or overlooked. Trade, movements of goods are in this context the most intensively studied part of the archaeological record. Marked by endless numbers of shipwrecks that represent a moment event sealed in time they relate to the topics mentioned above with their locations, ship-building technology and variety of cargos. At a closer look, it becomes obvious there is a lack of more detailed observation on a variety of settlement structures, harbour installations, anchorage places, production areas like shipyards, salt works, live fish tanks etc. All operation at sea did and still do closely depend on this places. To get a comprehensive picture of life along the coast, a systematic correlation study between them is paramount in detecting, recording and explaining them. Two of archaeologically long used specialist disciplines - underwater/marine archaeology and air photo interpretation - have focused on the target zone separately without considering where the integration of both results might enhance the interpretation possibilities. It would also improve planning fieldwork, research levels and protection of these sites. By way of examining the coastline, particularly shallow waters relates both fields to the goal of identifying possible shift of ancient coastline through time. Air photo interpretation has been in the last twenty years enhanced with a number of new remote sensing techniques. In addition, extended open access to spatial information like aerial photography and satellite imagery, should give a fresh impulse to use those results as a base map for planning and organize monitoring of areas where underwater/maritime archaeology may have problems in contextualizing fragmented parts of former coastline activities. A segment of East Adriatic coast (sampling mainland and islands) is a good example to expose the advantages and limitations of RS work on the shallow water. Considering the moving coastline as a constant, the focus is on problems of visibility, the transformation of structures in the wet environment, recording stage of preservation, and assessing the larger context of single sites. The chosen case studies reflect the attempt to identify and reconstruct parts of the former coastline to discuss the future goals in working on this type of data. Archaeologists might also start to explore the potential of feedback for each specialist group that study and try to protect these volatile habitats.

At first sight, development in archaeological methodology seems rather a linear process. Methods and techniques are constantly in the process of upgrading and evolving, with sporadic jumps to a new level. One good illustration of such jumps would be the implementation of digital photography which in a very short period almost completely replaced the non-digital photography. The change was mostly due to superior technology and a reduction of costs (per individual photography) that, today, almost no one includes photography in the budget of archaeological projects. But the case of digital photography also reveals another side – the change in attitude towards the visual recording of archaeological work. In order to fully comprehend the changes (e.g. development of methods), also from the epistemological perspective, it is not enough to observe methodological changes 'internally', but also to reflect pertinent aspects of archaeological practice. In this respect, the historical approach is not just 'chronology' of developmental steps or growth of technology, but can evolve into the proper history of our discipline exploring the ways how we know what we know.

Eastern Adriatic coast, especially its Croatian part, abounds with archaeological sites that testify about the uninterrupted presence of life, different social, ethnic, religious groups and cultures on this particular area. During the period of rule of ancient Greek communities and ancient Rome, with the inevitable influence of Hellenic and Roman culture, a large number of settlements have been established along the eastern Adriatic coast. Many of those settlements positioned on the very shore of Adriatic sea were forerunners of urban areas that are still present in the modern period. With such abundance of ancient settlements, we were left with many material traces of their existence, but also of the culture, customs and the ways of life of the people that inhabited them. Some of the archaeological sites from ancient periods became underwater sites, over the long period, due to the effects of geological changes, forces of nature and the constant changes of the sea level. The legislative framework in the Republic of Croatia regulates the protection and preservation of archaeological sites with no special mention of underwater archaeological sites. That fact alone gives us a great opportunity for recommending the best practice for protection, preservation and research of underwater archaeological sites, regardless of the fact that all archaeological sites of cultural and historic significance enjoy a certain level of protection. Underwater archaeological sites require the provision of individual measures of protection and conservation, especially regarding their attractiveness and the cultural value they possess. By examining the actual condition of underwater archaeological locations along Croatian eastern Adriatic coast, and legal framework that deals with measures of their protection, conservation and hydrographic representation we will be able to get a full insight of the current state regarding levels of archaeological sites’ physical and legal protection and to propose the best practices to improve the previously mentioned measures.

The Roman conquest of eastern Adriatic coast lasted from the First Illyrian War in 229 BCE until 9 CE, when the final battle took place. To secure the conquered coastal region, the territory between the colonies of Iader and Salona, where the first Roman immigrants had already arrived, Romans built – from the east to the west – two fortresses and several forts connected by the roads. In the scientific literature, this defense construction was laconically called the Delmataean limes, and it has been the subject of persistent scientific discussion. The aim of the AdriaRom project is to investigate the line of fortresses and forts of so-called Delmataean limes in order to show whether that line was a border or not. This area has seen numerous conflicts between the Romans and the indigenous populace which left their mark on the landscape. Using airborne laser scanning (ALS) we hope we can identify features which could further testify to the actions of the Roman military besides those already known from research done at the two legionary fortresses of Burnum on the river Krka and Tilurium on the river Cetina. This landscape approach will also give us an insight into the infrastructure of the indigenous populace, and having that in mind, we’ve set out to define our target areas. Our area of research is also specific because of the rough karst geology and dense Mediterranean vegetation which affects the visibility of sites and features. This poster will present the problems we encountered, our solutions and the results of the ALS scanning. Following the project methodology field survey will be conducted on target areas, in order to determine the archaeological potential and basic information on the distribution of archaeological findings and sites in areas that are selected by the ALS scanning.

Bronze hoards have had a key role in the construction of LBE chronologies on both local and wider regional levels, and more recently, in studies of distribution networks and communication routes. However, due to hoards being predominantly accidental finds during construction or agricultural works, information on their provenance and archaeological context is usually sparse or non-existent. Building on the known data for bronze hoards in north-western Croatia, this poster presents the possibilities and limitations of inferring missing spatial data using GIS software. Combining the known information about each find with different publicly available vector and raster datasets allows for spatial analysis to be conducted and its results input into a uniform database which can ultimately be expanded to encompass all bronze hoards in Croatia. While the potential of GIS for spatial data retrieval may seem encouraging, its limitations should be nonetheless considered. In addition to the extent of archival data available, the use of GIS software is also limited by the completeness and resolution of spatial data hosted on WMS and WFS servers.

The problem discussed in this presentation is whether a correlation exists between the size of hillfort and enclosure sites (local term gradina) and corresponding arable land. The size of hillfort and enclosure sites was measured using measuring tools and aerial photographs available through the Arkod public service. The research which included mapping of hillfort and enclosure sites (either sites already known from archaeological literature or surveys conducted by the author) and basic measurements suggest that the position of the majority of larger hillfort and enclosure sites (more than 1 ha) closely correspond to large tracts of arable land. These plots are situated in karstic poljes such as Donje polje, Grebaštica, Vedro polje, Velimsko polje, Bribirske mostine etc. Furthermore, the research suggests that in areas where arable tracts of land are smaller in sizes such as Perković, Boraja, Primošten and Rogoznica areas, hillfort and enclosure sites are also smaller, measuring on average less than 1 ha. At this point, due to the lack of research, it is impossible to claim whether the hillfort and enclosure sites found in the area existed simultaneously. However, it is plausible to claim that larger hillfort and enclosure sites (more than 1 ha) were built in periods in which socio-political-economic changes were rapidly taking place, leading to greater growth and development of communities whose economy is directly linked to large tracts of arable land.

The project Cultural Landscape - A Model for Valorisation, Protection, Management and Use of Cultural Heritage (ProHeritage) continues its research activities. The research activities are being conducted in the areas covered by administrative units Jasenice and Obrovac. Total research area covers 630 km2 of extremely karstifiled terrain. Research methods include common landscape archaeology tools such as remote sensing, aerial archaeology, archival research and field survey. In this presentation, we would like to emphasize the archival aspect of our research. Historical and cadastral maps are a corner stone of any landscape research project. In respect with our research area, the primary historic source are Venetian surveys (Mape Grimani from 1709) curated by the state archive in Zadar. The survey in question records a period of relative stability following the cessation of hostilities with the Ottoman empire. The maps are truly well of various information for the history of a landscape. In this sense, maps containing old place names, archaeological sites, abandoned settlements and a host of other information necessary for landscape studies are a vital source for landscape studies. Key words: cultural heritage, cultural landscape, historic and cadastral maps

Gorjani Kremenjača is Neolithic site in Slavonia, Croatia. It covers an area of several hectares covered with the modern agricultural fields. Magnetometry survey showed several enclosures and high concentration of objects and features. Such archaeological site that contains only soil features is especially challenging for public presentation, yet the goal was to find a solution for efficient and effective presentation to the public. The chosen solution was to enlighten the area of one enclosure and layout of several prehistoric houses. In this poster, we are presenting the illumination of site Gorjani Kremenjača using 500 LED solar lights in September 2019.

This paper tends to show a critical approach to archaeological research applied in studying grave goods and their contexts, in which single finds were distracted from their context and displayed or published as single finds. Show cases from Viminacium and Zadar shall be discussed, and solutions offered. The grave number G1-15 from the Viminacium – Brest cemetery is quite outstriking. Its most famous find is a water-clock. It was molded as a reverse Drag. 37 type bowl and glazed in its upper part, obviously representing a special order by the family of the deceased. In several publications, it was published as if it was a single find. However, the whole set of grave goods from grave G1-15 includes more than fifty finds, all of them clearly indicating the cult of Venus Funeraria. The example of the lead casket discovered in 2006 in Zadar - grave 36 (Hypo banka) was also extracted from its original context and published within an exhibition catalogue about magic and superstition. During Antiquity, the lead did possess „magic features“, but in this case, it was just a protective casket for a glass urn in which cremated remains were deposited, same as many similar caskets made of stone. Needless to say, there was no „magic“ to be recognized from any of the grave-goods from the same grave. Although it surely is useful to make typologies of e.g. pottery, metal or glass finds discovered as grave-goods, it is even more important to look at each of the graves as a capsule that was created in a specific moment in time – designed for a person who died by those who mourned. These contexts are often left aside and neglected, but it is actually them that give a clear and broad image of a society who once created this cemetery.

The Vučedol culture is famous for its rich and diverse material culture, in particular, extraordinary ceramic artefacts (vessels, figurines) and metal working. Bone industry is one of its less explored aspects, although relatively rich assemblages were discovered at sites such as the eponymous Vučedol or Sarvaš. The site of Zók, in present-day Hungary (Baranya County), excavated in 1920, also yielded a rich assemblage of osseous artefacts, thus offering some data on the technology of antler manufacture in the Late Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age Vučedol culture. The collection of antler artefacts from Zók, currently stored in the National museum in Belgrade, includes axes, hammers, as well as manufacture debris, that helped in the reconstruction of chaîne opératoire. Mainly shed, collected antlers were used, and only occasionally we have antlers from killed animals. Red deer antlers prevail, with rare occurrences of roe deer antlers. Particularly interesting are traces of working in metal tools. Metal tools were occasionally used for working bone in the Eneolithic period in the South-East Europe, for examples at sites such as Sovjan in Albania, Armenochori in Greece, etc., but for the southern Carpathian basin, we have very little information regarding bone production in the earlier phases of the Eneolithic. Evidence from Zók shows that the antler production in the Late Vučedol culture was well developed and rather important activity. Unfortunately, the scarce data on the context do not allow reconstruction of a possible workshop or working area at the site.

Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy is a well-established method of dating based on trapped charges, applied to various crystalline materials, including carbonates, bones and teeth. It provides a detailed insight into the structure of radiation defects – paramagnetic centers generated by irradiation, without the need for painstaking sample preparation, often challenging in other methods. Using EPR we studied the effect of γ radiation on lime mortars and plasters from ancient settlement Hippos in Israel, in order to analyze the process of defect generation. Analysis of the complex spectra revealed the presence of radiation-induced species, including CO2-, NO32- and organic radical. Since, as it has been recently shown, radiation defects can also be generated, instead of bleached, in pure calcite by UV radiation, we investigated also the effect of UV exposure on lime mortars. Our results can lead to a deeper understanding of generation and bleaching mechanisms of paramagnetic species, which is crucial for identifying the issues, especially related to light exposition, affecting the accuracy of age determinations in trapped-charge dating methods.